[From
the hard copy book Tools
for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco,
1993. Linking to this book chapter from other websites is permissible. However,
the contents of this chapter may not be copied, printed, or distributed in hard
copy form without permission.]
Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about
learning, but many need-or expect-their instructors to inspire, challenge, and
stimulate them:
"Effective learning in the classroom depends on the
teacher's ability ... to maintain the interest that brought students to the
course in the first place" (Ericksen, 1978, p. 3). Whatever level of
motivation your students bring to the classroom will be transformed, for better
or worse, by what happens in that classroom.
Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for
motivating students. Many factors affect a given student's motivation to work
and to learn (Bligh, 1971; Sass, 1989): interest in the subject matter,
perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence and
self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. And, of course, not all
students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. Some of
your students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by overcoming
challenges.
Researchers have begun to identify those aspects of the
teaching situation that enhance students' self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas,
1990; Weinert and Kluwe, 1987; Bligh, 1971). To encourage students to become
self-motivated independent learners, instructors can do the following:
·
Give
frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they
can do well.
·
Ensure
opportunities for students’ success by assigning tasks that are neither too
easy nor too difficult.
·
Help
students find personal meaning and value in the material.
·
Create an
atmosphere that is open and positive.
·
Help
students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.
Research has also shown that good everyday teaching
practices can do more to counter student apathy than special efforts to attack
motivation directly (Ericksen, 1978). Most students respond positively to a
well-organized course taught by an enthusiastic instructor who has a genuine
interest in students and what they learn. Thus activities you undertake to
promote learning will also enhance students' motivation.
 |
General Strategies
|
Capitalize on students' existing needs. Students learn best when incentives for learning in a classroom
satisfy their own motives for enrolling in the course. Some of the needs your
students may bring to the classroom are the need to learn something in order to
complete a particular task or activity, the need to seek new experiences, the
need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the need to become
competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel involved and to
interact with other people. Satisfying such needs is rewarding in itself, and
such rewards sustain learning more effectively than do grades. Design assignments,
in-class activities, and discussion questions to address these kinds of needs.
(Source: McMillan and Forsyth, 1991)
Make students active participants in learning. Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating,
solving. Passivity dampens students' motivation and curiosity. Pose questions.
Don't tell students something when you can ask them. Encourage students to
suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the results of an experiment. Use
small group work. See "Leading a Discussion," "Supplements and
Alternatives to Lecturing," and "Collaborative Learning" for
methods that stress active participation. (Source: Lucas, 1990)
Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more
or less "motivating." Sass (1989) asks
his classes to recall two recent class periods, one in which they were highly
motivated and one in which their motivation was low. Each student makes a list
of specific aspects of the two classes that influenced his or her level of
motivation, and students then meet in small groups to reach consensus on
characteristics that contribute to high and low motivation. In over twenty
courses, Sass reports, the same eight characteristics emerge as major
contributors to student motivation:
·
Instructor's
enthusiasm
·
Relevance
of the material
·
Organization
of the course
·
Appropriate
difficulty level of the material
·
Active
involvement of students
·
Variety
·
Rapport
between teacher and students
·
Use of
appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples
|
Incorporating Instructional Behaviors
That Motivate Students
|
Hold high but realistic expectations for your
students. Research has shown that a teacher's
expectations have a powerful effect on a student's performance. If you act as
though you expect your students to be motivated, hardworking, and interested in
the course, they are more likely to be so. Set realistic expectations for
students when you make assignments, give presentations, conduct discussions,
and grade examinations. "Realistic" in this context means that your
standards are high enough to motivate students to do their best work but not so
high that students will inevitably be frustrated in trying to meet those
expectations. To develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe that
achievement is possible -which means that you need to provide early
opportunities for success. (Sources: American Psychological Association, 1992;
Bligh, 1971; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991 -1 Lowman, 1984)
Help students set achievable goals for themselves. Failure to attain unrealistic goals can disappoint and frustrate
students. Encourage students to focus on their continued improvement, not just
on their grade on any one test or assignment. Help students evaluate their
progress by encouraging them to critique their own work, analyze their
strengths, and work on their weaknesses. For example, consider asking students
to submit self-evaluation forms with one or two assignments. (Sources: Cashin,
1979; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)
Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your
course. Don't let your students struggle to figure
out what is expected of them. Reassure students that they can do well in your
course, and tell them exactly what they must do to succeed. Say something to
the effect that "If you can handle the examples on these problem sheets,
you can pass the exam. People who have trouble with these examples can ask me
for extra help." Or instead of saying, "You're way behind," tell
the student, "Here is one way you could go about learning the material.
How can I help you?" (Sources: Cashin, 1979; Tiberius, 1990)
Strengthen students' self-motivation. Avoid messages that reinforce your power as an instructor or that
emphasize extrinsic rewards. Instead of saying, "I require,"
"you must," or "you should," stress "I think you will
find. . . " or "I will be interested in your reaction." (Source:
Lowman, 1990)
Avoid creating intense competition among students. Competition produces anxiety, which can interfere with learning.
Reduce students' tendencies to compare themselves to one another. Bligh (1971)
reports that students are more attentive, display better comprehension, produce
more work, and are more favorable to the teaching method when they work
cooperatively in groups rather than compete as individuals. Refrain from public
criticisms of students' performance and from comments or activities that pit
students against each other. (Sources: Eble, 1988; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)
Be enthusiastic about your subject. An instructor's enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student
motivation. If you become bored or apathetic, students will too. Typically, an
instructor's enthusiasm comes from confidence, excitement about the content,
and genuine pleasure in teaching. If you find yourself uninterested in the
material, think back to what attracted you to the field and bring those aspects
of the subject matter to life for your students. Or challenge yourself to
devise the most exciting way topresent the material, however dull the material
itself may seem to you.
|
Structuring the Course to Motivate
Students
|
Work from students' strengths and interests. Find out why students are enrolled in your course, how they feel
about the subject matter, and what their expectations are. Then try to devise
examples, case studies, or assignments that relate the course content to
students' interests and experiences. For instance, a chemistry professor might
devote some lecture time to examining the contributions of chemistry to
resolving environmental problems. Explain how the content and objectives of
your course will help students achieve their educational, professional, or
personal goals. (Sources: Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)
When possible, let students have some say in choosing
what will be studied. Give students options on term
papers or other assignments (but not on tests). Let students decide between two
locations for the field trip, or have them select which topics to explore in
greater depth. If possible, include optional or alternative units in the
course. (Sources: Ames and Ames, 1990; Cashin, 1979; Forsyth and McMillan,
1991; Lowman, 1984)
Increase the difficulty of the material as the
semester progresses. Give students opportunities to
succeed at the beginning of the semester. Once students feel they can succeed,
you can gradually increase the difficulty level. If assignments and exams
include easier and harder questions, every student will have a chance to
experience success as well as challenge. (Source: Cashin, 1979)
Vary your teaching methods. Variety reawakens students' involvement in the course and their
motivation. Break the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities
and methods in your course: role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion,
demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, or
small group work. (Source: Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)
|
De-emphasizing Grades
|
Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades. Ames and Ames (1990) report on two secondary school math teachers.
One teacher graded every homework assignment and counted homework as 30 percent
of a student's final grade. The second teacher told students to spend a fixed
amount of time on their homework (thirty minutes a night) and to bring
questions to class about problems they could not complete. This teacher graded
homework as satisfactory or unsatisfactory, gave students the opportunity to
redo their assignments, and counted homework as 10 percent of the final grade.
Although homework was a smaller part of the course grade, this second teacher
was more successful in motivating students to turn in their homework. In the
first class, some students gave up rather than risk low evaluations of their
abilities. In the second class, students were not risking their self-worth each
time they did their homework but rather were attempting to learn. Mistakes were
viewed as acceptable and something to learn from.
Researchers recommend de-emphasizing grading by
eliminating complex systems of credit points; they also advise against trying
to use grades to control nonacademic behavior (for example, lowering grades for
missed classes) (Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman 1990). Instead, assign
ungraded written work, stress the personal satisfaction of doing assignments,
and help students measure their progress.
Design tests that encourage the kind of learning you
want students to achieve. Many students will learn
whatever is necessary to get the grades they desire. If you base your tests on
memorizing details, students will focus on memorizing facts. If your tests
stress the synthesis and evaluation of information, students will be motivated
to practice those skills when they study. (Source: McKeachie, 1986)
Avoid using grades as threats. As McKeachie (1986) points out, the threat of low grades may prompt
some students to work hard, but other students may resort to academic
dishonesty, excuses for late work, and other counterproductive behavior.
|
Motivating Students by Responding to
Their Work
|
Give students feedback as quickly as possible. Return tests and papers promptly, and reward success publicly and
immediately. Give students some indication of how well they have done and how
to improve. Rewards can be as simple as saying a student's response was good,
with an indication of why it was good, or mentioning the names of contributors:
"Cherry's point about pollution really synthesized the ideas we had been
discussing." (Source: Cashin, 1979)
Reward success. Both
positive and negative comments influence motivation, but research consistently
indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success.
Praise builds students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem. Recognize
sincere efforts even if the product is less than stellar. If a student's
performance is weak, let the student know that you believe he or she can
improve and succeed over time. (Sources: Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)
Introduce students to the good work done by their
peers. Share the ideas, knowledge, and
accomplishments of individual students with the class as a whole:
·
Pass out a
list of research topics chosen by students so they will know whether others are
writing papers of interest to them.
·
Make
available copies of the best papers and essay exams.
·
Provide
class time for students to read papers or assignments submitted by classmates.
·
Have
students write a brief critique of a classmate's paper.
·
Schedule a
brief talk by a student who has experience or who is doing a research paper on
a topic relevant to your lecture.
Be specific when giving negative feedback. Negative feedback is very powerful and can lead to a negative class
atmosphere. Whenever you identify a student's weakness, make it clear that your
comments relate to a particular task or performance, not to the student as a
person. Try to cushion negative comments with a compliment about aspects of the
task in which the student succeeded. (Source: Cashin, 1979)
Avoid demeaning comments. Many students in your class may be anxious about their performance
and abilities. Be sensitive to how you phrase your comments and avoid offhand
remarks that might prick their feelings of inadequacy.
Avoid giving in to students' pleas for "the
answer" to homework problems. When you simply
give struggling students the solution, you rob them of the chance to think for
themselves. Use a more productive approach (adapted from Fiore, 1985):
·
Ask the
students for one possible approach to the problem.
·
Gently
brush aside students’ anxiety about not getting the answer by refocusing their
attention on the problem at hand.
·
Ask the
students to build on what they do know about the problem.
·
Resist
answering the question "is this right?" Suggest to the students a way
to check the answer for themselves.
·
Praise the
students for small, independent steps.
If you follow these steps, your students will learn that
it is all right not to have an instant answer. They will also learn to develop
greater patience and to work at their own pace. And by working through the
problem, students will experience a sense of achievement and confidence that
will increase their motivation to learn.
|
Motivating Students to Do the Reading
|
Assign the reading at least two sessions before it will
be discussed. Give students ample time to prepare
and try to pique their curiosity about the reading: "This article is one
of my favorites, and I'll be interested to see what you think about it."
(Sources: Lowman, 1984; "When They Don't Do the Reading," 1989)
Assign study questions. Hand
out study questions that alert students to the key points of the reading
assignment. To provide extra incentive for students, tell them you will base
exam questions on the study questions. (Source: "When They Don't Do the
Reading," 1989)
If your class is small, have students turn in brief
notes on the day's reading that they can use during exams. At the start of each class, a professor in the physical sciences
asks students to submit a 3" x 5" card with an outline, definitions,
key ideas, or other material from the day's assigned reading. After class, he
checks the cards and stamps them with his name. He returns the cards to
students at a class session prior to the midterm. Students can then add any
material they would like to the cards but cannot submit additional cards. The
cards are again returned to the faculty member who distributes them to students
during the test. This faculty member reports that the number of students
completing the reading jumped from 10 percent to 90 percent and that students
especially valued these "survival cards." (Source: Daniel, 1988)
Ask students to write a one-word journal or one-word
sentence. Angelo (1991) describes the one-word
journal as follows: students are asked to choose a single word that best
summarizes the reading and then write a page or less explaining or justifying
their word choice. This assignment can then be used as a basis for class
discussion. A variation reported by Erickson and Strommer (199 1) is to ask
students to write one complex sentence in answer to a question you pose about
the readings and provide three sources of supporting evidence: "In one
sentence, identify the type of ethical reasoning Singer uses in his article
'Famine, Affluence, and Morality.' Quote three passages that reveal this type
of ethical reasoning" (p. 125).
Ask nonthreatening questions about the reading. Initially pose general questions that do not create tension or
feelings of resistance: "Can you give me one or two items from the chapter
that seem important?" "What section of the reading do you think we
should review?" "What item in the reading surprised you?"
"What topics in the chapter can you apply to your own experience?"
(Source: "When They Don't Do the Reading," 1989)
Use class time as a reading period. If you are trying to lead a discussion and find that few students
have completed the reading assignment, consider asking students to read the
material for the remainder of class time. Have them read silently or call on
students to read aloud and discuss the key points. Make it clear to students
that you are reluctantly taking this unusual step because they have not
completed the assignment.
Prepare an exam question on undiscussed readings. One faculty member asks her class whether they have done the
reading. If the answer is no, she says, "You'll have to read the material
on your own. Expect a question on the next exam covering the reading." The
next time she assigns reading, she reminds the class of what happened the last
time, and the students come to class prepared. (Source: "When They Don't
Do the Reading," 1989)
Give a written assignment to those students who have
not done the reading. Some faculty ask at the
beginning of the class who has completed the reading. Students who have not
read the material are given a written assignment and dismissed. Those who have
read the material stay and participate in class discussion. The written
assignment is not graded but merely acknowledged. This technique should not be
used more than once a term. (Source: "When They Don't Do the
Reading," 1989)
http://teaching.berkeley.edu/bgd/motivate.html retrieved April 24, 2008
|
References
|
American Psychological Association. Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles: Guidelines for School Redesign and Reform. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1992.
Ames, R., and Ames, C. "Motivation and Effective
Teaching." In B. F. Jones and L. Idol (eds.), Dimensions of Thinking
and Cognitive Instruction. Hillsdale, N. J.: ErIbaum, 1990.
Angelo, T. A. "Ten Easy Pieces: Assessing Higher
Learning in Four Dimensions." In T. A. Angelo (ed.), Classroom
Research: Early Lessons from Success. New Directions for Teaching and
Learning, no. 46. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.
Bligh, D. A. What's the Use of Lecturing? Devon,
England: Teaching Services Centre, University of Exeter, 1971.
Brock, S. C. Practitioners' Views on Teaching the
Large Introductory College Course. Manhattan: Center for Faculty Evaluation
and Development, Kansas State University, 1976.
Cashin, W. E. "Motivating Students." Idea
Paper, no. 1. Manhattan: Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development in
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Daniel, J. W. "Survival Cards in Math." College
Teaching, 1988, 36(3), 110.
Eble, K. E. The Craft of Teaching. (2nd ed.) San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
Ericksen, S. C. "The Lecture." Memo to the
Faculty, no. 60. Ann Arbor: Center for Research on Teaching and Learning,
University of Michigan, 1978.
Erickson, B. L., and Strommer, D. W. Teaching College
Freshmen. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.
Fiore, N. "On Not Doing a Student's Homework."
Chemistry TA Handbook. Berkeley: Chemistry Department, University of
California, 1985.
Forsyth, D. R., and McMillan, J. H. "Practical
Proposals for Motivating Students." In R. J. Menges and M. D. Svinicki
(eds.), College Teaching: From Theory to Practice. New Directions in
Teaching and Learning, no. 45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.
Lowman, J. Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984.
Lowman, J. "Promoting Motivation and
Learning." College Teaching, 1990, 38(4), 136-39.
Lucas, A. F. "Using Psychological Models to
Understand Student Motivation. " In M. D. Svinicki (ed.), The Changing
Face of College Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 42.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990.
McKeachie, W. J. Teaching Tips. (8th ed.)
Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1986.
McMillan, J. H., and Forsyth, D. R. "What Theories
of Motivation Say About Why Learners Learn." In R. J. Menges and M. D.
Svinicki (eds.), College Teaching: From Theory to Practice. New
Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.
Sass, E. J. "Motivation in the College Classroom:
What Students Tell Us." Teaching of Psychology, 1989, 16(2), 86-88.
Tiberius, R. G. Small Group Teaching: A
Trouble-Shooting Guide. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
Press, 1990.
Weinert, F. E., and Kluwe, R. H. Metacognition,
Motivation and Understanding. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1987.
"When They Don't Do the Reading." Teaching
Professor, 1989, 3(10), 3-4.
From
the hard copy book Tools
for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis; Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco,
1993. Linking to this book chapter from other websites is permissible. However,
the contents of this chapter may not be copied, printed, or distributed in hard
copy form without permission.
Available at the UCB campus library
(call # LB2331.D37). The entire book is also available online as part of
netLibrary (accessible only through computers connected to the UC Berkeley
campus network). It is available for purchase at the Cal Student Store textbook
department, the publisher, and Amazon. Note: Barbara Gross Davis is working on the second
edition of Tools for Teaching.
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